Assessment of Post- Castration Pain in Rabbits Treated with The Ethanol Extract of Chenopodium Ambrosioides Linn
Assessment of Post- Castration Pain in Rabbits Treated with The Ethanol Extract of Chenopodium Ambrosioides Linn
ABSTRACT
This study was carried out to assess post-castration pain and distress using blood glucose concentration; oxidative stress parameters, algometer, and rabbit grimace scale in rabbits treated with the ethanol extract of Chenopodium ambrosioides (C. ambrosioides).
Fifteen (15) sexually matured and clinically healthy bucks with the mean weight of about 2.5 ± 0.7 kg were used for the study.
The animals were allowed to acclimatize to the management conditions for two weeks. The research was carried out in two phases:
Phase 1 comprised three groups, A, B and C that contained 3 rabbits each, and were treated orally with normal saline, meloxicam tablet (0.1 mg/kg), and C. ambrosioides extract (500 mg/kg), respectively after castration.
The phase 2 contained groups D and E with 3 animals each, and were treated topically with Fastum gel® (Ketoprofen 2.5 %) and C. ambrosioides (applied liberally) extract after castration.
Two milliliter (2 ml) of blood sample was collected from each buck to assay for Malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration, Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), and Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities, 1 hr, 2 hr, and 3 hr post treatment, following the evaluation of blood glucose concentration.
Post-castration pain assessment was done using the Rabbit Grimace scale at 1 hr post treatment for twenty minutes followed by post-castration pain evaluation using algometer around the surgical wound.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Tittle page…………i
Declaration ………….iii
Certification…………iv
Dedication……………. v
Acknowledgements………….vi
Abstract ……………….vii
Table of contents …………ix
Lists of Figures …………. xiv
Lists of Tables………… xv
Lists of Plates…………. xvi
Lists of Appendices………xvii
Lists of Abbreviation…….. xix
1.0 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Background of the Study……………………………………………………………………………….. 1
1.2 Statement of Research Problem……………………………………………………………………… 5
1.3 Justification of the Study……………………………………………………………………………….. 5
1.4 Aim……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 7
1.5 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7
1.6 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………………………. 9
2.1 Castration ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9
2.1.1 Methods of castration………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
2.1.2 Complications of different methods of castration …………………………………………….. 15
2.1.3 The indications of castration ………………………………………………………………………… 16
2.1.4 The short scrotum method of castration in lambs …………………………………………….. 17
2.1.5 Castration in swine …………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
2.1.6 Rabbit husbandry……………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
2.1.7 Castration techniques in rabbits ……………………………………………………………………. 22
2.1.8 Management of pain due to castration in livestock …………………………………………… 24
2.2 Pain …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25
2.2.1 Types of pain…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
2.2.2 Analgesic therapies for painful husbandry procedures………………………………………. 27
2.2.3. Recognition and assessment of pain ……………………………………………………………… 28
2.2.4 Pain scoring tools ………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
2.2.5 Pharmacological management of pain……………………………………………………………. 29
2.2.6 Non-pharmacological management of pain …………………………………………………….. 41
2.2.7 Challenges due to the use of anaesthesia and analgesia in cattle and other food
animals…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 43
2.2.8 Pain assessment in animals ………………………………………………………………………….. 44
2.2.9 Postoperative pain assessment ……………………………………………………………………… 45
2.3. Blood Glucose Concentration………………………………………………………………………. 47
2.4 Oxidative Stress in Surgical Patients…………………………………………………………….. 48
2.4.1 Superoxide dismutase (SOD)……………………………………………………………………….. 51
2.4.2. Malondialdehyde (MDA)……………………………………………………………………………. 52
2.4.3 Formation of MDA…………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
2.5 Pressure Algometry …………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
2.6 Grimace Scale …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
2.6.1 The facial action units…………………………………………………………………………………. 57
2.7 Ethno-Veterinary Medicine………………………………………………………………………….. 58
2.8 Chenopodium ambrosioides L ……………………………………………………………………….. 60
2.8.1 Common names…………………………………………………………………………………………. 60
2.8.2 Origin and distribution………………………………………………………………………………… 61
2.8.3 Botanical description of C. ambrosioides……………………………………………………….. 61
2.8.4 Phytochemical properties of C. ambrosioides………………………………………………….. 62
2.8.5 The pharmacological properties of C. ambrosioides…………………………………………. 62
2.8.6 Effects of C. ambrosioides L. extract on bone repair………………………………………… 64
2.8.7 Antimicrobial properties of C. ambrosioides…………………………………………………… 65
2.8.8 Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of C. ambrosioides…………………………. 65
2.8.9 Anti-helminthic properties of C. ambrosioides………………………………………………… 66
2.8.10 The effects of C. ambrosioides on some haematological parameters …………………. 66
2.8.11. Other traditional or medicinal uses of C. ambrosioides ………………………………….. 67
2.8.12 Toxicity of C. ambrosioides L ……………………………………………………………………. 68
2.9 Meloxicam………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70
2.9.1 Meloxicam‘s mechanism of action………………………………………………………………… 70
2.9.2 Absorption of meloxicam…………………………………………………………………………….. 70
2.9.3 Distribution of meloxicam …………………………………………………………………………… 71
2.9.4 Metabolism of meloxicam …………………………………………………………………………… 72
2.9.5 Elimination of meloxicam……………………………………………………………………………. 72
2.9.6 Interactions of meloxicam with other drugs…………………………………………………….. 72
2.10 Ketoprofen ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 73
2.10.1 Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of topical ketoprofen ………………………. 74
2.10.2 Efficacy of topical ketoprofen (tKP) ……………………………………………………………. 75
2.10.3 Safety and tolerability of topical ketoprofen………………………………………………….. 76
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………………………………………………………… 77
3.1 Location of the Research ……………………………………………………………………………… 77
3.2. Matrials…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 77
3.2.1 Exprimental animals…………………………………………………………………………………… 77
3.2.2 Equipment and instruments………………………………………………………………………….. 78
3.2.3 Consumables …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 78
3.3 Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 78
Phase I…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 78
3.3.1 Plant material and extraction………………………………………………………………………… 78
3.3.2 Determination of acute oral toxicity………………………………………………………………. 79
Phase II…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 80
3.4 Pre-surgical Evaluation and Surgical Procedure ……………………………………………. 80
3.4.1 Restraint/anaesthesia…………………………………………………………………………………… 80
3.4.2 Surgical technique ……………………………………………………………………………………… 80
3.4.3 Animal grouping………………………………………………………………………………………… 81
3.5 Determination of Blood Glucose Concentration and the Oxidative Stress Makers83
3.5.1 Determination of blood glucose concentration ………………………………………………… 83
3.5.2 The assessment of plasma malondialdehyde (MDA)………………………………………… 83
3.5.3 Determination of superoxide dismutase activity (SOD)…………………………………….. 84
3.5.4 Assay of decreased glutathione peroxidase activity (GPx)…………………………………. 85
3.6 Pressure Algometry …………………………………………………………………………………….. 86
3.7 Rabbit Grimace Scale………………………………………………………………………………….. 86
3.8 Data Analysis. …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 88
4.0 RESULTS …………………… 89
4.1 Preliminary Phytochemical Studies………………………………………………………………. 89
4.1.1 Determnation of acute oral toxicity ……………………………………………………………….. 89
4.2. Evaluation of the Ameliorative Effect of C. ambrosioides on Blood Glucose
Concentration (mg/dL) due to the Castration-induced Pain in Rabbits…………………. 91
4.3 Evaluation of the Ameliorative Effect of C. ambrosioides on Castration-induced
Oxidative Stress in Rabbits……………………………………………………………………………….. 93
4.3.1 Effects of Meloxicam and C. ambrosioides on the castration-induced increase in
plasma malondialdhyde (MDA) concentration………………………………………………………… 93
4.3.2 Effects of Meloxicam and C. ambrosioides on castration-induced decrease in plasma
superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity…………………………………………………………………….. 95
4.3.3 Effects of Meloxicam and C. ambrosioides on the castration-induced decrease in
plasma glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity …………………………………………………………. 97
4.4 Evaluation of Anti-nociceptive Property of Meloxicam, Ketoprofen, and C.
ambrosioides Extract on Castrated Rabbits ………………………………………………………… 99
4.4.1 Evaluation of algometer – induced pain in castrated rabbits treated with various
agents at the day 1 (day of surgery). ……………………………………………………………………… 99
4.4.2 Evaluation of algometer – induced pain in castrated rabbits treated with various
agents at day 2 (second day of surgery). ………………………………………………………………. 101
4.5 Evaluation of Anti-nociceptive and Anti-inflammatory Properties of Oral and
Topical C. ambrosioides Extract on Castrated Rabbits……………………………………….. 103
4.5.1 Pain score values of various facial expression under different treatment groups of
castrated rabbits using Rabbit Grimace Scale………………………………………………………… 103
5.0 DISCUSSION ………………… 112
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS …………………………………………… 120
6.1 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………… 120
6.2 Recommendations……………………………………………………………………………………… 122
6.3 Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 122
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 123
Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 160
INTRODUCTION
Orchidectomy or castration as is commonly called is the surgical removal of the testicles, epididymis and a portion of the Vas deferens (Murray, 2006).
Indications for castration in food animals are different from that of small animals and they can be either elective or therapeutic.
The indications for elective orchidectomy in food animals include reduction of inappropriate behaviour such as, aggression and unwanted sexual behaviour, prevention of some genetic or hereditary diseases and prevention of reproductive tract diseases (Murray, 2006; Lennox, 2008).
The therapeutic indications for castration are testicular diseases such as infections and neoplasia, correction of an inguinal hernia, true cryptorchidism and trauma (Lennox, 2008).
Castration has been known to have several advantages including reduction of aggression (towards other animals), improvement of handler safety, reduction of sexual behaviour and meat quality improvement (Okafor et al., 2015).
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